Atomic force microscopy

• Chemical heterogeneity of RO membranes was first investigated using AFM. • AFM probes were designed by employing negative CML and positive AAL colloids. • Chemical heterogeneity was more pronounced with AAL probe than CML probe. • RO membranes showed different charge distribution despite similar ze

Whilst carbon dioxide is water soluble the system is somewhat complex and results in the presence of carbonate anions which interact with cations such as Ca2+ and Mg2+ present in seawater to form insoluble carbonates, especially at high temperatures. In multistage flash (MSF) desalination plants CO2

Nanofiltration membranes (NF) have applications in several areas. One of the main applications has been in water treatment for drinking water production as well as wastewater treatment. NF can either be used to treat all kinds of water including ground, surface, and wastewater or used as a pretreatm